We know water is essential for life. Less known is that there may be enough freshwater for everyone — if the world´s resources are well understood and responsibly managed.

Water is key to achieving socio-economic development. It is also a crucial element of poverty reduction efforts. In the Millennium Declaration, UN Member States resolved “to halve by the year 2015 the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safe drinking water” and “to stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources, by developing water management strategies at the regional, national and local levels, which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies.” (from iaea.org Bulletin 47/1)

Nearly half of all freshwater used for drinking and irrigation worldwide is groundwater, linking the sustainability of groundwater resources to sustainable human development.

The steady increase in global demand for freshwater, coupled with rapid industrial and agricultural development, is threatening the availability and quality of fresh water supplies. Today, a large part of the world population particularly in regions of water scarcity suffers from the lack of sufficient water supply. Mahatma Gandhi put it aptly more than 60 years ago when he said “there is enough water for human need, but not enough for human greed.” According to the report of the UN Secretary General to the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, the global water crisis also is a crisis of governance.

In Africa, for instance, inadequate access to water and sanitation is considered both a cause and consequence of poverty. Although there are abundant water resourceson the continent — about 17 large rivers and 160 lakes greater than 27 km2 — most of these resources are located in the humid and sub-humid region around the equator. The surface runoff in Africa, on average, is much lower than average precipitation as a result of high evaporation and evapo-transpiration. This results in endemic drought in parts of the continent.

That is why for Africa groundwater — the underground ponds and lakes of aquifer systems — is a critical resource. It provides nearly two-thirds of all drinking water on the continent, and an even greater proportion to the peoples of northern Africa. Similarly, water resources in South America approximate 3 million km3 and only the equivalent of one-tenth of the total amount of water contributed by precipitation is used every year. The major problems these countries face are sustainable groundwater use and prevention of contamination of the available resources.

Groundwater Lifelines

Globally, groundwater represents about 90% of available freshwater resources, excluding the resources locked in polar ice. Nearly half of all freshwater used for drinking and irrigation worldwide is groundwater, linking the sustainability of groundwater resources to sustainable human development.

About 20% of irrigation worldwide, producing 40% of the food supply, is dependent upon groundwater. It is estimated that nearly 10% of global food production may be dependent upon irrigation water extracted from fossil or non-renewable aquifers. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the use of groundwater for irrigation over the last several decades probably has delayed the next food crisis.

The Science of Isotope Hydrology

Despite the importance of groundwater for many societies, there is a lack of corresponding public concern about its protection, perhaps because the extent and availability of groundwater are not easily measured. The impact of the increasing degree of temporal and special climatic variability on the water resources also is an important consideration. Groundwater, to some extent, provides an opportunity to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

To develop sustainable management and policy frameworks, it is necessary to have sound hydrological information on the quality and quantity of water resources. Making such information available requires a substantial amount of time and financial resources, and generally cannot be achieved on the short time scale at which societal demands for water supply have to be met.

Nuclear and isotope methodologies provide powerful tools for hydrologists to rapidly assess and manage water resources at a vastly lower cost. Stable and radioactive environmental isotopes have now been used for more than four decades to study hydrological systems and have proved particularly useful for understanding groundwater systems.

Applications of isotopes in hydrology are based on the general concept of “tracing”, in which either intentionally introduced isotopes or naturally occurring (environmental) isotopes are employed. Environmental isotopes (either radioactive or stable) have the distinct advantage over injected (artificial) tracers in that they facilitate the study of various hydrological processes on a much larger temporal and spatial scale through their natural distribution in a hydrological system. Thus, environmental isotope methodologies are unique in regional studies of water resources to obtain time and space integrated characteristics of groundwater systems. The use of artificial tracers generally is effective for site-specific, local applications.

The most frequently used environmental isotopes include those of the water molecule, hydrogen (namely deuterium, and tritium) and oxygen (oxygen-18 as well as carbon-13 and carbon-14) occurring in water as constituents of dissolved inorganic and organic carbon compounds. Deuterium, carbon-13 and oxygen-18 are stable isotopes of the respective elements whereas tritium and carbon-14 are radioactive isotopes.

Among the most important areas where isotopes are useful in groundwater applications include aquifer recharge and discharge processes, flow and interconnections between aquifers, and the sources, fate and transport of pollutants. In particular, under arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, isotope techniques constitute virtually the only approach for identification and quantification of groundwater recharge.

Pollution of shallow aquifers and of deeper aquifers due to the over-exploitation of shallow aquifers, by anthropogenic contaminants is one of the central problems in the management of water resources. Environmental isotopes can be used to trace the pathways and predict the spatial distribution and temporal changes in pollution patterns for assessing pollution migration scenarios and planning for aquifer remediation.

Global Maps of the World´s Aquifers

The IAEA´s Water Resources Programme aims to develop isotope techniques for water resources management and assist scientists to use these techniques correctly. A substantial part of the programme focuses on groundwater. Estimates of the world´s groundwater resources are generally weak and reliable information on the proportion of renewable or non-renewable groundwater is sketchy. The IAEA, together with the United Nations Education and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and International Association of Hydrologists (IAH), is working to improve the understanding of the global distribution and amounts of non-renewable or fossil groundwater. The investigations rely on the use of the labeling properties of isotope data collected from groundwater aquifers worldwide.

Most of the isotope data for global mapping of aquifers were collected over the last four decades as part of the IAEA´s technical cooperation projects. These projects built substantial national and regional scientific capacity and infrastructure while helping to solve practical issues in surface water or groundwater management. At present, there are over 80 operational technical cooperation projects dealing with isotope hydrology in Africa, Asia, and Latin American regions, for an adjusted budget of about US$7 million.

Over the past years, the IAEA has been working very closely with its Member States to bring isotope hydrology into the mainstream of national and international water resource related programmes resulting in a wider use of isotope techniques for water resources management. In central Morocco, isotope results were used to improve a groundwater management model for the Tadla Plain, an important region for agriculture. In Yemen, isotope investigation of groundwater in the Sana´a Basin clearly identified the nature and source of recharge to the shallow groundwater systems. The work advanced understanding of the efficacy of artificial recharge measures, potentially leading to the use of a deeper, fossil aquifer for drinking purposes only.

Of late, the IAEA´s technical cooperation projects in water resources have focused more sharply on partnerships with other development agencies. In Uganda, a project implemented in cooperation with the Austrian Development Cooperation led to the delineation of recharge areas of Chuho springs, near Kisoro town. These springs are being developed as the source of freshwater in the entire southwestern townships. The results of isotope investigations provided unique information critical for the sustainability of the new source of water.

Most of the isotope data for global mapping of aquifers were collected over the last four decades as part of the IAEA´s technical cooperation projects.

In Bangladesh, the IAEA worked in cooperation with the World Bank and the government to help develop sustainable alternatives for safe drinking water supplies. At present, a large part of domestic water supply is obtained from shallow tube wells tapping an aquifer that is contaminated with arsenic. Isotope investigations helped to determine the extent and renewability of a deeper aquifer.

Three technical cooperation projects related to aquifer systems shared by several countries in Africa were recently initiated in collaboration with the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United Nations Development Programme, and the United Nations Environment Programme. These projects focus on isotope hydrological investigations of the:

• Nubian Aquifer System shared by Chad, Egypt, Libya and Sudan;
• Northwestern Sahara Aquifer System shared by Algeria, Libya and Tunisia;
• Iullemeden Aquifer System shared by Mail, Niger and Nigeria.

Advancing Knowledge about the Nubian Aquifer

The Nubian aquifer, shared by Chad, Egypt, Libya and Sudan, is of significant importance as a source of drinking water and for irrigation. The ancient waters of the Nubian stretch approximately two million square kilometers beneath these four countries of northeast Africa. The aquifer is a significant source of drinking water and irrigation and is the only source of freshwater in Egypt´s western desert, which covers about 67% of the country´s total land area.

Since 2003, the IAEA has been helping the Nubian countries use isotope techniques for mapping water resources. What is known so far is that under present climatic conditions, the Nubian´s groundwater is sparsely recharged by Nile water seepage in a few areas, by precipitation in some mountain regions, and by groundwater influx from the Blue Nile/Main Nile Rift system.

The aim of the IAEA project is to expand and consolidate the scientific knowledge and database on the Nubian and develop a groundwater management plan based on a monitoring network for the aquifer. Setting up a management framework for the aquifer will be an important contribution to the region´s development and eventually lead to sustainable production of drinking water and improved agricultural production.

The IAEA entered into a partnership with Global Environment Facility (GEF) in 2003 to develop a framework for sustainable management of the Nubian Aquifer, using isotope hydrology. The IAEA´s work to help the Nubian countries study and manage shared groundwater supplies recently received a matching grant of $1 million from the GEF, based in Washington, D.C. The grant is being provided via the United Nations Development Program. The GEF funding will extend the scope of the IAEA-supported cooperative programme and will enable the countries that use the aquifer to develop an effective groundwater management plan.

Through these and other channels, the science and applications of isotope hydrology are advancing the world´s knowledge of aquifer systems. With the right information in hand, the right decisions can be made to protect and preserve groundwater resources for generations to come.

It is a war crime to attack essential civilian infrastructure. 95% of Libya is desert and 70% of Libyans depend on water which is piped in from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (read about it 6/66) System under the southern desert. The water pipe infrastructure is probably the most essential civilian infrastructure in Libya. Key to its continued function, particularly in time of war, is the Brega pipe factory which enables leaks and breaks in the system to be repaired.

NATO has admitted that its jets attacked the pipe factory on 22 July 2011, claiming in justification that it was used as a military storage facility and rockets were launched from there. (from yahoo.com)

The Great Man-Made River

Libyans like to call the Great Man-Made River “The eighth wonder of the world”.

According to a March 2006 report by the BBC  the industrialisation of Libya following the Great Al-Fatah Revolution in 1969, put strain on water supplies and coastal aquifers became contaminated with sea water, to such an extent that the water in Benghazi was undrinkable. Finding a supply of fresh, clean water became a government priority and fortunately oil exploration in the 1950s had revealed vast aquifers beneath Libya’s southern desert.

In August 1984, Muammar Al Qadhafi laid the foundation stone for the pipe production plant at Brega. The Great Man-Made River Project had begun. Adam Kuwairi, a senior figure in the Great Man-Made River Authority (GMRA), vividly remembers the impact the fresh water had on him and his family:

“The water changed lives. For the first time in our history, there was water in the tap for washing, shaving and showering. The quality of life is better now, and it’s impacting on the whole country.”

On 3 April  Libya warned that NATO-led air strikes could cause a “human and environmental disaster” if air strikes damaged the Great Man-Made River project.

Engineer and project manager Abdelmajid Gahoud told foreign journalists in Tripoli:

“If part of the infrastructure is damaged, the whole thing is affected and the massive escape of water could cause a catastrophe,” leaving 4.5 million thirsty Libyans deprived of drinking water.

The Brega Pipe-Making Plant

The Pre-Stressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe Factory at Brega is one of only two such facilities in Libya – the other being at Sarir to the east. This makes it a very important component of the Great Man-Made River – with two production lines making up to 80 pipes a day.

According to the BBC:

The engineer in charge of the Brega pipe factory is Ali Ibrahim. He is proud that Libyans are now running the factory:

“At first, we had to rely on foreign-owned companies to do the work. But now it’s government policy to involve Libyans in the project. Libyans are gaining experience and know-how, and now more than 70% of the manufacturing is done by Libyans. With time, we hope we can decrease the foreign percentage from 30% to 10%.”

As a result, Libya is now a world leader in hydrological engineering and it wants to export its expertise to other African and Middle-Eastern countries facing similar problems with their water.

According to the official web site of the Great Man-Made River Authority:

Approximately 500,000 pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipes have been manufactured to date. Approximately 500,000 pipes transported to date. Pipe transportation is continuous process  and the work goes on day and night, distance traveled by the transporters is equivalent to the sun and back. Over 3,700 km of haul roads  was constructed alongside the pipe line trench to enable the heavy truck – trailers to deliver pipe to the installation site.

NATO Attack

On 22 July 2011 NATO warplanes attacked the pipe making plant at Brega killing six of the facility’s security guards:

As you can see from Google Earth the 100s of pipes at this facility, out in the desert south of Brega, make it clear, even from the air, that this is a pipe-production plant:

Video footage shows a major building within the plant has been destroyed and there is also damage to at least one of the trucks which is used to transport pipes to places where repairs are required:

According to AP, Abdel-Hakim el-Shwehdy, head  of the company running the project, said:

“Major parts of the plant have been damaged. There could be major setback for the future  projects.”

Water supply to Brega Cut

On Monday 18 July 2011 rebel spokesman Shamsiddin Abdulmolah told AFP that remnants of Gadhafi’s troops were holed up among industrial facilities in Brega with supplies dwindling.

“Their food and water supplies are cut and they now will not be able to sleep.”

Given the rebel boasts that the pro-Gadaffi forces in Brega had no water, the question has to be posed whether this attack was a deliberate attempt to prevent repair of the pipeline into Brega.

NATO Response

In response to HRI enquiry, NATO press office said:

We can confirm that we targeted Brega on July 22nd 2011 and we stroke successfully: one military storage facility and four armed vehicles.”

HRI requested clarification:

The building you hit (apparently in the Brega pipe factory) was being used for what kind of military storage?

What considerations were taken into account to ensure that the strikes did not damage civilian infrastructure or was damage to the civilian infrastructure considered legitimate?

Given the potential consequences to civilians of damage to the pipe factory and the ability of the engineers to be able to repair broken water pipelines I hope you will appreciate the importance of these questions.

At the 26th July 2011 at the NATO press conference in Naples  Colonel Rolond Lavoie, neglecting to inform the assembled journalists that the “concrete factory” plays an important role in preserving Libya’s water supply, said:

Now in the area of Brega, NATO strikes included armoured vehicles, rocket launchers, military storage facilities and a repurposed concrete factory from which Pro-Gaddafi forces were using multi-viral [sic] rocket launchers, exposing the population to indirect fire.

Let me show you some intelligence pictures that illustrate what we have observed at this concrete factory. By the way these pictures will be made available on the NATO site so it will be possible for the media can download them

So basically repeatedly over the last few weeks we got clear intelligence indicating that pro-Gadaffi forces are using this factory for military purposes. This factory is being used to hide military material including Multiple Rocket Launchers. These weapons have been used every day from within this factory compound and then carefully hidden after the day within or along massive pipes you can see in this picture.

Slide 1 20 July 2011

Slide 2 23 July 2011

Slide 1 20 July 2011 apparently shows a BM-21 rocket launcher -a model of rocket launcher widely used by both loyalist and rebel forces in Libya.

Slide 2 23 July 2011 apparently shows a BM-21 rocket launcher. The slide shows black smoke in the centre of the picture which suggests two hits (possibly on vehicles) have already been made, with the BM-21 left intact.

Neither slide appears to show the building which was destroyed in the video or helps to understand when or why that was hit. So the photos lead to more questions than they answer – clearly the BM-21, spotted on the 20th, was not considered a priority target, and there is nothing in the NATO explanation which explains why the water supplies of the Libyan people have now been put at such risk.

On 27th July 2011 further enquiries by HRI elicited the additional information that

The factory is being used to hide military material, including multiple rocket launchers. These weapons have been used every day from within this factory compound and then carefully hidden after the day within the factory buildings and the area.

President Barack Obama handily defeated Gov. Mitt Romney and won himself a second term on Tuesday after a bitter and historically expensive race that was primarily fought in just a handful of battleground states. Obama beat Romney after nabbing almost every one of the 12 crucial battleground states.(from google.com)

The Romney campaign’s last-ditch attempt to put blue-leaning Midwestern swing states in play failed as Obama’s Midwestern firewall sent the president back to the White House for four more years. Obama picked up the swing states of New Hampshire, Michigan, New Mexico, Iowa, Virginia, Wisconsin, Colorado, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and Ohio. Of the swing states, Romney picked up only North Carolina.

In a sweeping victory speech early Wednesday morning, Obama thanked every American who voted, and vowed to work with leaders from both parties to tackle the country’s challenges.

In his speech, he offered clues to the policy goals of his second term, which included a deficit reduction plan that combines tax increases with spending cuts, a comprehensive overhaul of the nation’s federal immigration laws and tax reform. He called on Republicans to join him in achieving those goals.

The battle for the White House between Obama and Romney divided the nation, causing, at times, bitter disputes between the parties. Obama urged his supporters to look beyond fight of the past several months and defended the process of choosing a president.

The Obama victory marks an end to a years-long campaign that saw historic advertisement spending levels, countless rallies and speeches, and three much-watched debates.

The Romney campaign cast the election as a referendum on Obama’s economic policies, frequently comparing him to former President Jimmy Carter and asking voters the Reagan-esque question of whether they are better off than they were four years ago. But the Obama campaign pushed back, blanketing key states such as Ohio early on with ads painting him as a multimillionaire more concerned with profits than people. The Obama campaign also aggressively attacked Romney on reproductive rights issues, tying Romney to a handful of Republican candidates who made controversial comments about rape and abortion.

The ads were one reason Romney faced a steep likeability problem for most of the race, until his expert performance at the first presidential debate in Denver in October. After that debate, and a near universal panning of Obama’s performance, Romney caught up with Obama in national polls, and almost closed his favorability gap with the president. In polls, voters consistently gave him an edge over Obama on who would handle the economy better and create more jobs, even as they rated Obama higher on caring about the middle class.

But the president’s Midwestern firewall—and the campaign’s impressive grassroots operation—carried him through. Ohio tends to vote a bit more Republican than the nation as a whole, but Obama was able to stave off that trend and hold an edge there over Romney, perhaps due to the president’s support of the auto bailout three years ago. Romney and his running mate, Paul Ryan, all but moved to Ohio in the last weeks of the campaign, trying and ultimately failing to erase Obama’s lead there.

A shrinking electoral battleground this year meant that only 12 states were really seen as in play, and both candidates spent most of their time and money there. Though national polls showed the two candidates in a dead heat, Obama consistently held a lead in the states that mattered. That, and his campaign’s much-touted get-out-the-vote efforts and overall ground game, may be what pushed Obama over the finish line.

Now, Obama heads back to office facing what will most likely be bitterly partisan negotiations over whether the Bush tax cuts should expire. The House will still be majority Republican, with Democrats maintaining their majority in the Senate.